6. ASA PROGRAMS AND ACTIVITIES

ASA programmatic activity grew dramatically during the 1980s. In the early 1980s, ASA had strong publications and Minority Fellowship (MFP) programs, and also developed a process for an institutional response in support of research. Programs on Teaching Services (TSP), Professional Development (PDP), Certification, Research on the Profession, and Public Information evolved over the course of the decade. The following section describes these core ASA programs and activities during the 1980s.

Research and Publications
A primary objective of ASA is to support basic research and to promote a program of publication that reports on and disseminates those research findings. Thus, the major part of ASA activities in this area during the 1980s was focused on activities such as:

• Monitoring federal funding agencies and providing information about their activities through articles in Footnotes, sessions at meetings, workshops and so forth;
• Responding to actions of federal agencies and Congress, both by advocating on behalf of social research programs and educating officials about the value and importance of social science research in the policy-making process;
• Taking initiatives in many areas affecting research, such as protection of human subjects of research, ethics, and regulation of research;
• Providing direct assistance through small grants, such as the Fund for the Advancement of the Discipline (FAD) which provides seed money for groundbreaking research projects. FAD was designed to support projects of direct relevance to the discipline, rather than the profession and Council approved use of the Fund to be restricted "for workshops, seminars or mini-courses whose aim is to upgrade the scholarly and research skills of ASA members as appropriate uses of the Fund." (Council Minutes, September 9, 1982);
• Establishing a program of research on the profession;
• Undertaking modest data gathering and analytic projects by Executive Office Staff, ASA committees, task forces, and through other special initiatives of ASA Council; and
• Emphasizing a publications program that aims for excellence and wide dissemination of sociological research, but also recognizes the need for specific priorities and prudent management.

Collaborations with Other Associations
The major challenge for ASA during the 1980s was defending federal social science research programs from attacks by the Reagan Administration. At the NSF, budget cuts severely reduced the pool of funds for social research (the first Reagan budget threatened to cut the NSF budget by 75 percent). At the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) the Administration proposed to phase out social research altogether. These cuts had severe impacts on federal funding for social science research generally (sociology proposals for NIMH funding were down in the early 1980s), and directly threatened the Minority Fellowship Program, a core ASA program funded primarily by NIMH.

Some agencies, however, were supportive of social science research: The National Institute on Aging (NIA) was a consistent advocate of sociological research, and ASA was fortunate in this respect to have had Matilda White Riley as the Associate Director for Behavioral and Social Research at NIA from 1979 to 1991. Riley, the first Executive Officer of ASA (1949-60) and ASA President in 1986, was the founding NIA Associate Director, Senior Social Scientist from 1991 through 1997, and Scientist Emeritus, from 1998 until her death in 2004.

CONSORTIUM OF SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATIONS (COSSA)
ASA worked in close collaboration with other social science associations in support of the lobbying and education efforts for social science research, especially with the Consortium of Social Science Associations (COSSA), the Council of Professional Associations for Federal Statistics (COPAFS), and the National Humanities Alliance (NHA). Actions taken included making personal calls upon members of Congress and their staffs, providing testimony, holding seminars for Congressional staff, conducting letter writing campaigns, and generally raising awareness among associations' memberships and urging them to join in various campaigns.

COSSA played a major role in monitoring social research funding and in galvanizing the response to the federal budgetary policies. COSSA established its Washington Office with a two-person staff in May 1981. Under the direction of Roberta B. Miller, COSSA emerged as a significant force both in lobbying on behalf of the social sciences, as well as in educating policy makers on the relevance and significance of social scientific research. Executive Officer D'Antonio noted that there was a general consensus that the willingness of Congress "to add more dollars to Reagan Administration budget proposals for the social sciences…is in no small measure the result of the increasingly effective lobbying efforts of COSSA, COPAFS and NHA." (Footnotes, August 1984:13)

The Association was an active member of COSSA, COPAFS, and NHA. ASA and COSSA also cosponsored a series of Breakfast Seminars for Congressional leaders and their staffs around the general theme of "The Long Term Consequences of Unemployment"-with the support of Reps. Paul Simon (D-IL), Augustus Hawkins (D-CA), and James Jeffords (R-VT). In the summer of 1983, William Kornblum, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, and Paula Rayman, Brandeis University, were speakers at two such Congressional Seminars.

ASA was a major supporter of COSSA, and worked closely with it in its mission to advance the social sciences. Executive Officer Russell Dynes played a leading role in "activating COSSA," chaired the Executive Committee of COSSA in 1982, and represented COSSA and the NHA on the Executive Committee of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS). In 1984, Executive
Officer D'Antonio was chair of the Search Committee of COSSA to find a successor to Roberta Miller, and ASA President-Elect Kai Erikson was on COSSA's Executive Board. In 1990, D'Antonio completed four years as chair of COSSA's Executive Committee.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE (AAAS)
The Association also worked through the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in support of research and professional activities-although there were tensions in the relationships with these organizations. With respect to the AAAS, there was a general feeling among social scientists that Science magazine did not give sufficient attention to the work of social scientists, that the social science presence at AAAS annual meetings was very limited, that social science involvement in the Section K (Section on Social, Economic, and Political Science) should be enhanced, and that, in general, the involvement of ASA in the AAAS needed to be expanded.
David Sills of the SSRC, who was Secretary of Section K in 1983, informed D'Antonio that the editor of Science had assured him that if "appropriate sociological topics were proposed to him, he would proceed to commission articles on them." D'Antonio reported that "Sills urges that sociologists inform him of ideas for articles that they think appropriate." (Footnotes, August 1983:9) In 1984, Council appointed a special Ad Hoc Committee (chaired by Matilda Riley, with members JoAnne Miller and James Zuiches), to work with the ASA representatives to Sections K and U (Statistics) to increase ASA participation in the annual meetings of the AAAS.

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (SSRC)
ASA's relationship with the SSRC was also complex. In August 1990, Executive Officer D'Antonio summed up for Council the existing tensions in the relationship between COSSA and the SSRC. A growing dissatisfaction with existing arrangements had prompted COSSA members to ask for reorganization of SSRC's Board to acknowledge all the social sciences, not just founding members. Since the SSRC Board had not acted on the proposed change, D'Antonio reported that the situation was at a standstill. D'Antonio added that the ASA representative to SSRC was not appointed by the ASA (it could only recommend candidates) and, as such, was under no obligation to report to Council.

Discussion in Council focused on four specific issues-the ASA relationship to SSRC, ASA Council relationship to its representative to SSRC, how this representative is appointed, and how ASA should support "sister associations" in their quest for more formal recognition within SSRC. Council also directed its attention, however, to the broader issue of assessing ASA's ties to all external organizations, and appointed a subcommittee to assess "the whole 'map' of organizational ties so that individual cases could be more clearly understood." (Council Minutes, August 15, 1990)

In January 1991, the Committee on ASA's Organizational Ties reported to Council, indicating that categories of ties may be summed up as lobbying, interprofessional, international, and interdisciplinary. In speaking for the Committee, W. Richard Scott noted that, while "there are difficulties in attempting to maintain the range of ties involved, Scott deemed it an appropriate effort and recommended no changes. Four Recommendations were offered, however, to improve the reporting, exchange and use of information," including through annual reports to ASA of representatives to such organizations and periodic meetings of such representatives with ASA officers (Council Minutes, January 1991). Scott and incoming Executive Officer Felice Levine hosted the first of such meetings at the Annual Meeting in August 1991.

The Research on the Profession
Herbert J. Gans, ASA President in 1988, initiated efforts to establish a capacity for ASA to do "some practical sociological research about itself." (Footnotes, October 1988:2) On August 28, 1988, Council passed a resolution creating an Ad Hoc Committee for Research on the Profession the mandate of which was to prepare a plan of action "toward developing a coherent research capacity for the ASA." By 1989, under the guidance of the Committee, preparations were under way for a survey of graduate departments and an RFP had been issued for data collection and analysis services.

Discussion at the first 1990 Council focused on the importance of having a research capacity and the need for an advisory committee to establish priorities. The Research Program on the Discipline and the Profession was instituted as one of the core ASA Programs in 1992 (see Chapter 2).

Human Subjects of Research
ASA also contributed to the process of refining the federal regulations relating to the protection of human subjects in research. In January 1981, Council minutes note that, "the final version of the regulations amending basic HHS [Department of Health and Human Services] policy for the protection of human subjects of research has been completed and is to appear in the Federal Register on January 26, 1981. The chair of ASA's Standing Committee on Regulation of Research indicated that the final regulations are responsive to the concerns expressed by the Association in that the regulations apply only to federally funded research, and certain types of social science research will no longer require review of human subjects to meet Federal requirements." (Council Minutes; Footnotes, November 1981:1,7)

Research-Related Social Policy Issues
Following a "spirited discussion" led by Amitai Etzioni at the January 1984 meeting of the ASA Council, the Association created a special Commission on Sociology and Society with the general mandate "to examine the interrelationship of sociological analysis and the public policy process and to investigate how each might have a more beneficial impact on the other." (Council Minutes, August 30, 1984) Discussion of the Commission's report on August 30, 1984 led Council to conclude, "that a committee of Council was not the appropriate vehicle for pursuing the intellectual direction charted by the Commission. Council cannot effectively define directions the discipline should take." As a result, the Commission on Sociology and Society was dissolved at that meeting.

In 1990, Edna Bonacich presented a preliminary report of the Subcommittee on the ASA and the Needs of the Poor and Dispossessed showing how ASA could demonstrate leadership in setting policy agendas on major social issues relating to inequality (class, race, gender) based on social science research. The ASA President appointed a Blue Ribbon Committee (consisting of Ivar Berg, Edna Bonacich, Troy Duster, and Jill Quadagno) to act on issues raised by the Subcommittee. Council, however, deferred action in this area on August 15, 1990 pending a decision on the Cornerhouse Fund proposal (which was being prepared at the time).

Cornerhouse Fund
Informed by the Cornerhouse Board of Trustees in 1989 that Fund operations would cease, ASA and The Center for Advanced Study at Stanford were invited to write proposals to receive all remaining monies held by the Fund. The Cornerhouse Fund awarded a variety of grants, primarily in the form of support of dissertation research for minority students (See Minority Fellowship Program). It was established in 1969 as a provision of the will of sociologist Sydney S. Spivack, faculty member at Princeton University. (For further background on the Cornerhouse Fund and Spivack's career, see Footnotes, September 1991.)

In 1989, the Cornerhouse Board of Trustees consisted of Charles Glock (President), Spivack's widow Dorothy Eweson, Marvin Bressler, Melvin Tumin, Clara Shapiro, and Joan Waldron. In 1990, ASA was awarded a planning grant of $25,000 for the purpose of preparing a full proposal on how the ASA would manage and disperse such a gift. A Committee, chaired by Cora Marrett, and including Wendy Baldwin, Ivar Berg, Robert Dentler, Reynolds Farley, Marvin Olsen, Jill Quadagno, Matilda White Riley, Joan Waring, and William Julius Wilson was formed to prepare the proposal.

Executive Officer D'Antonio (joined in 1990 by Felice Levine, the incoming Executive Offi cer), participated in writing the proposal. The initial set of proposals were directed to identifying projects that might be attractive to the Cornerhouse Board; Levine and D'Antonio shifted the orientation in 1990 to propose the establishment of a fund to create a lasting program connecting sociological research and social policy to honor Sydney S. Spivack. The ASA Council closely monitored this process throughout.

ASA proposed to create a program in applied social research and social policy, which would have two interdependent goals: to advance applied social policy, and to foster the use of sociological knowledge in social policy. It would have the broadest definition of institutions of modern society-including government, law, business, family, religion, health, welfare, and education.

Building on existing research and various programs in applied sociology that had been developed over the prior decade, ASA outlined a range of possible initiatives on topics covering issues such as homelessness, poverty, health care, crime prevention, gender inequality, aging, discrimination, and environmental degradation. A point of emphasis in ASA's proposal was that sound policies should be based on sound research and knowledge, that sociology has a long tradition of substantial contribution in this area, and that ASA has in place mechanisms to pursue program goals effectively.

The proposal was accepted by the Cornerhouse Trustees, and the funds were awarded to ASA in February 1991 to establish the Sydney S. Spivack Program in Applied Social Research and Social Policy. The award, valued at $750,000 at the time, was formally presented by Eweson at the Awards Ceremony and Presidential session at the August Annual Meeting in Cincinnati. (See Chapter 2 on Spivack Program.)

Publications
The Association placed a high priority during the 1980s on supporting a publications program focused on excellence and enhancement of the discipline of sociology, while being attentive to prudent decisions on managing such a program. The publications program accounted for the largest expenditure and revenue stream in the Association budget and, therefore, was consistently a priority on the Council's agenda.

From 1984 to the present, the Publications Program has been directed at the Executive Office by Karen Gray Edwards, who has managed and coordinated its activities (including representation of ASA with journal editors, Committee on Publications, and Boyd Printing Company) through a complex period of enormous change in technologies related to publication processes. Edwards also produced the Association newsletter, Footnotes, the Employment Bulletin, and handled most other aspects of ASA's publishing needs-such as those relating to the Annual Meeting.

Scope of Publications
At the end of 1990, ASA was publishing nine journals: the American Sociological Review (ASR), Contemporary Sociology (CS), Journal of Health and Social Behavior (JHSB), Social Psychology Quarterly (SPQ), Sociology of Education (SOE), Teaching Sociology (TS), Sociological Theory (ST), and Sociological Practice Review (SPR), Sociological Methodology (SM), several guides and directories, as well as the Employment Bulletin (EB), and the Association newsletter, Footnotes. The ASA added 24 volumes to the Rose Monograph Series from 1980 through 1990, published by the Cambridge University Press (see Appendix 18).

In January 1986, Council formalized a Presidential Series for publications of ASA presidents with the provision "that no president be required to publish in the Series and that editorial control by publishers not be permitted." (see Appendix 19) The Series consisted of volumes produced by presidents drawn primarily from the Thematic and Plenary Sessions of their Annual Meetings. Council terminated the Executive Office's involvement in the Presidential Series at the conclusion of the Sage Publication Inc. contract in 1991 because of low publisher interest in the project.

Changes in the Publication Program During the 1980s
During the 1980s, several important changes took place in the ASA publications program. In 1982, after a lapse of eight years, the Executive Office again published the Biographical Directory of Members (the Directory of Members was published for each of these eight years, but not with biographical entries). The American Sociologist (TAS) was phased out in 1982 (the last issue was published in November 1982) after considerable debate, including discussion on possibly incorporating TAS into ASR.

In 1986, three ASA journals evolved through major transitions: (1) After almost two years of negotiations with Sage Publications, ASA purchased Teaching Sociology in 1985, and began publication of TS in 1986. The Teaching Newsletter was also incorporated into TS at this time. (2) The journal Sociological Theory, previously published as an annual review by Jossey-Bass, became a semi-annual journal published by the ASA. (3) The 1986 volume of the annual Sociological Methodology was published by the ASA after it was purchased from Jossey-Bass. In addition, the 15-year Cumulative Index for ASR, CS, JHSB, SPQ, SOE, TAS, SM, and ST (and including the American Journal of Sociology and Social Forces) was also published in 1986. In 1989, ASA Council approved a recommendation from the Committee on Publications for a contract with Basil Blackwell for the publication of SM and ST.

One new journal, Sociological Practice Review (SPR), was added to the ASA's family of journals on a three-year experimental basis. In January 1987, Council approved a resolution to establish SPR and directed that a campaign be undertaken to raise funds to help launch it. In 1989, Robert Dentler was chosen as the first editor. After publication of two issues in 1990, SPR was published quarterly in 1991 and 1992, and discontinued at the end of 1992 because of low subscriptions (see Chapter 2).

Attention was also focused on the production quality and appearance of ASA journals. In 1985, Council approved a Committee on Publication's request that the quality of paper used for journals be upgraded, because libraries were complaining "that bound volumes of ASA journals are falling apart due to the use of low quality paper." (Council Minutes, August 31, 1985) Journal covers were also upgraded, type size increased, page numbers added to journals, and shrink-wrapping introduced for mailings.

Council also took action to formalize certain legal aspects of its publishing program. In 1982, Council accepted a copyright statement for inclusion in ASA journals. In 1985, Council approved trademarking its journals, and passed a resolution that ASA not lend its logo to outsiders but that it publish its own journals. Council also issued a policy statement that ASA regard all publications as experimental and conduct periodic reviews of them. In addition, Council passed a resolution giving Irving Horowitz (on behalf of Transaction Publishers) the right to use the name The American Sociologist for a new publication, with the stipulation that the name reverts to ASA if publication does not move forward or ceases to exist.

By the end of the 1980s, electronic and desktop publishing emerged as an option for producing publications, although in January 1990, "Council expressed concern for any shifting of the burden for editorial cost to individual authors, many of whom have fewer offi ce resources available for manuscript preparation. There was sentiment that electronically submitted manuscript should be optional."

General Policies and Priorities
Over the years, especially through its Publications Committee, ASA dealt with a wide range of policy issues affecting the publishing program. A comprehensive review of ASA's publishing program took place in 1980 and 1981 resulting in a 145-page report of analysis, alternative publication models, and recommendations. At the end of the decade, Secretary Michael Aiken "praised the action of the Publication[s] Committee in establishing a five year plan to define other goals and targets." (Council Minutes, August 12, 1989)

Some of the recurring themes emerging from these policy reviews include determining appropriate responses to: (1) members' enthusiasm for publications (especially the startup of new ones)- while dealing with the scarce resources of ASA, (2) Association responsibility and support for specialty journals, (3) the need to conduct periodic reviews of all ASA journals, (4) procedures for evaluating submissions to publications, (5) procedures for setting editorial policies, (6) sound governance structures, (7) circulation growth and the viability of journals, and (7) questions about relevance of journals, especially of ASR and its content.

A few other examples of issues and debates pertaining to publications from the 1980s include the following: In February 1986, Council resolved that, at this time, it would not publish a social issues journal; that the voting members of the Committee on Publications should continue the practice of meeting separately; and that the position of "editor-designate" be created to deal with problems in transitions between editors on ASA journals. In January 1991, Council rejected a request from the Committee on Publications for jurisdiction over Footnotes. Council also appointed a subcommittee of Council to conduct a review of Footnotes, including the identification of appropriate criteria for evaluating the newsletter.

Also, several times during the 1980s criticism was raised in Council about the relevance and representativeness of ASR. In January 1982, some Council members noted that, over the years, ASR "has not changed much." Council members were encouraged to conduct a "minisurvey" on why authors do or do not choose to publish articles in ASR (Council Minutes, January 1982, and September 9,1982). A Report of the Committee to Evaluate the ASR was also produced in 1984. Again, on August 28, 1988, Council member Edna Bonacich asked for formation of a committee to review ASR in response to "continuing indications of dissatisfaction." A resolution was passed authorizing President Joan Huber, in consultation with the chair of the Committee on Publications, to jointly develop a mechanism for review of ASR.

A Subcommittee of the Committee on Publications (COP) consisting of Maureen T. Hallinan (Chair), Jeylan T. Mortimer, Teresa A. Sullivan, and Douglas W. Maynard was appointed in 1989 to evaluate ASR. The Subcommittee produced a report in the fall of 1989, which was circulated to Council (along with a packet of 23 letters compiled by Bonacich from section officers who responded to a call for input on the issue) in December 1989. The Report was presented to Council at the January 1990 meeting: "At issue was whether or not the ASR did or should represent the diversity of topical interests in the discipline, as well as theoretical and methodological orientations." After considerable discussion, (and defeat of a motion that the next editor "be strongly sympathetic to qualitative work"), a consensus emerged that publication of special issues of ASR which would reflect diversity of the discipline should be further explored by the Committee on Publications.

Political Science Review of Journals
ASA journals received high ratings in a 1986 survey of political scientists, who were asked to evaluate journal quality. The survey undertaken by three political scientists was published in the American Political Science Association's PS: Political Science and Politics and reported in the December 1989 edition of Footnotes. Out of some 78 journals, the two leading general sociological journals received very high scores: ASR was tied in second place with the American Political Science Association's flagship journal, the American Political Science Review; the American Journal of Sociology was tied in fourth place with the American Journal of Political Science. This strong showing of sociological journals in another social science field with its own journals and specialized content was significant in another respect: The 1986 evaluation was a replication of a 1975 study which produced similar high ratings for sociological journals.

Teaching Services Program (TSP)
A key component of the Association's activities during the 1980s was promoting excellence in teaching. ASA initiatives in these areas were complemented by joint efforts with regional associations, the critical support of ASA committees and past officers and, in some areas, collaborations with other social science organizations.

Core TSP Activities
The cornerstone of ASA's activity in this area was the Teaching Services Program (TSP), a multifaceted effort dedicated to improving and supporting teaching quality and effectiveness. Established in 1975 with grants from the Lilly Foundation and the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), TSP was launched under the leadership of Hans Mauksch, Executive Officer during 1975 and 1976, who provided the vision and impetus for the Program. Lawrence J. Rhoades handled most project activities from 1978 to 1981; and Carla Howery, Assistant Executive Director and Director for TSP from 1981 to 1993, brought the program to fruition and provided it with continuing energy, guidance, and direction.

Originally located at Oberlin College, TSP became a part of ASA operations in the 1978 budget year. Hans Mauksch, who had coordinated the fieldwork of the Teaching Resources Group (TRG) from its inception, retired from the project in 1983. In 1985, Council moved the TRG to a campus location with a Field Coordinator appointed for three-year terms, with rotations among colleges and universities similar to that of journal editors. William Ewens of Michigan State University was named the first Field Coordinator (1985-88); he was succeeded by J. Michael Brooks, Texas Christian University (1988-91), and Jeanne H. Ballantine, Wright State University (1991-94).

The purchase by the ASA of the journal Teaching Sociology from Sage Publications in 1985 also marked a "culmination in the fifteen year period of activity designed to make teaching a central part of Association activities." (D'Antonio in Footnotes, August 1991:2) Theodore Wagenaar of Miami University was the fi rst editor. The TSP had its own Teaching Newsletter, which was published bimonthly under the editorship (1982-85) of Carla Howery, who also managed all aspects of the publication. The Teaching Newsletter was merged with Teaching Sociology (TS) when ASA began publication of TS in 1986. The Section on Undergraduate Education also published a newsletter.

In the 1980s, the TSP consisted of three components:

• The Teaching Resources Center (TRC) distributed products written by and for sociologists to help them as teachers. By 1990, the TRC had produced more than 75 titles and in 1990 sold more than $35,000 worth of teaching materials. Individual members of the Association and sections of the Association contributed extensively to materials in the TRC. The materials disseminated through the Center (which was located at the Executive Office) included manuscripts, modules, syllabi sets, curriculum development materials, discussions of specific teaching skills such as lecturing, guidelines for training graduate students, and other information that shapes effective teaching. (See Appendix 20 for a detailed list of TRC products offered in 1990.)
• The teaching workshop series consisted of seminars conducted throughout the year on a variety of topics of interest to teachers of sociology. Designed to enhance teaching skills, the workshops were directed by the Field Coordinators with the advice and input of the Director of TSP. Workshop topics included discussions on teaching sexism and racism, and on substance abuse and prevention; and sessions on applied sociology, starting local research centers, academic leadership for chairpersons and deans, integrating internships in sociology programs, and using computers in teaching. (Appendix 20 contains a list of all workshops conducted in the series from 1980-91.)
• An ASA Teaching Resources Group (TRG) had members who were available for evaluating and advising departments seeking to improve their sociology programs. Hans Mauksch and Gail Woodstock, University of Missouri-Columbia, coordinated the first TRG Workshops in 1980-81. By the end of 1990, the TRG, which was also self-supporting, offered administrative reviews, diagnostic services, and self-improvement services. In 1990, site visits to more than a dozen campuses during the year were organized, calling upon a pool of some 60 scholars especially trained for these visits.

Both the Teaching Workshops and the TRG were largely financially and administratively independent of the Executive Office (site visit expenses were borne by the institution which hosted the event), although the Director of the TSP (Howery) was on the ASA staff, and budgets for the workshops were approved by the ASA.

In 1988, a Departmental Services Program was established at ASA to improve the distribution of ASA services and publications to departments through a nonvoting departmental membership in the Association. Packages of resources and materials were offered to sociology departments at discounted prices in a simplified ordering process. Brochures and other materials were also prepared and disseminated on ASA publications, resources, and services available to departments. In 1992, the TSP became part of the Association's Academic and Professional Affairs Program (APAP) (see Chapter 2).

Other Projects on Education
Throughout the 1980s, ASA also focused attention on improving the quality of sociology education at the high school, undergraduate, and graduate levels. Stimulated by reports such as A Nation at Risk by the President's Commission on Excellence in Education, ASA collaborated with other social science associations and the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) in outreach efforts aimed at the high school level "to transform the teaching of sociology and the other social sciences via a rigorous, more scientific approach to the social studies." (D'Antonio in Footnotes, August 1990:2)

ASA members also participated in discussions with AAAS leaders in evaluating Project 2061, an effort still ongoing by AAAS to rethink all facets about the teaching and curriculum of the physical and social sciences and mathematics. To assist the ASA to monitor and provide input to these new initiatives for sociology and the social sciences at the K-12 level, a new Task Force on Sociology in the Elementary and Secondary Schools was formed which included Paul Gray (Chair), Joseph DeMartini, Dean Dorn, Carla Howery, Paul Lindsay, Douglas Snyder, Jerold Starr, and Donna Wendel. The Task Force was charged to "examine and strengthen the role of the ASA in the areas of secondary and elementary education and the teaching of sociology at the precollege level." It presented its report to Council and was converted by Council to a standing committee on August 27, 1991. In 1985, ASA participated in two national conferences on the "The Improvement of Undergraduate Education" at Wingspread in Racine, WI. The impetus for the conference was several national reports on the status of undergraduate education in the U.S. and, especially, the works of Ernest Boyer, President of the Carnegie Endowment for the Advancement of Teaching. The ASA participants included approximately 40 sociologists who reported on lessons learned from the TRG experiences.

In collaboration with eleven other disciplines, ASA was involved from 1988 to 1990 in an initiative to examine the undergraduate major. Sponsored by the Association of American Colleges (AAC), this three-year project on "Study in Depth" was designed to address issues such as the core concepts of disciplines and the sequencing of courses. A Task Force, consisting of Carla Howery, Paul Eberts, Zelda Gamson, Theodore Wagenaar, Kathleen Crittenden, Robert Davis, and Catherine Berheide was appointed in 1989 "to assess current practices and make recommendations on the undergraduate major in sociology." Council endorsed ASA's report, which was published as Liberal Learning and the Sociology Major (Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1990), authored by Eberts et al. (Summaries of the report were published in Footnotes in January, February, and August 1991.) The report offered recommendations and guidelines for strengthening the undergraduate sociology major.

Efforts were also undertaken to assess graduate education. Under the leadership of 1989 ASA President Joan Huber, a Task Force on Graduate Education in the Year 2000 was established by ASA Council in 1988 to examine issues, trends, and curricula in light of new findings in research methodology and theory, major research directions, and recruitment needs. The Task Force consisted of Joan Huber (Chair), Michael Aiken, Lois DeFleur, Mayer Zald, Kenneth Land, Barbara Heyns, Stanley Lieberson, William J. Wilson, and William D'Antonio and worked closely with graduate department chairs. (See also Chapter 2.)

Professional Development Program (PDP)
A high priority during the 1980s was placed on advancing programs relating to "Sociological
Practice," a term used to refer to sociologists who worked in business, government, non-profit associations, or who were self-employed. This term was used, according to D'Antonio, because no other single term like "applied' or "policy-oriented," adequately described the professional activities of sociologists in these work settings (Footnotes, August 1991:12).

ASA activities focused on expanding and enhancing the employment opportunities of sociologists working outside of the academy through three major programs: the Professional Development Program (PDP), the Certification Program, and the Public Information Program. To guide the work in this area, Council appointed four Ad Hoc Committees: the Committee on Certification of Sociologists; the Committee on Trends in the Occupation of Sociologists; the Committee on Restructuring Professional Opportunities in Sociology; and the Committee on Federal Standards for the Employment of Sociologists. There was also a special Task Force on Sociology and the Media, the interests of which overlapped with those of the other committees.

Sociological Practice: 1981-86
In December 1981, a major workshop was held on "Directions in Applied Sociology," which signaled the importance of and the new commitment of ASA to sociological practice. Sponsored by the Committee on Professional Opportunities in Applied Sociology, and chaired by Howard Freeman, the workshop was held in Washington to a capacity audience. ASA Presidents Peter Rossi (1980) and William Foote Whyte (1981)-both of whom considered themselves applied sociologists-strongly supported ASA moves in this direction. The 1981 workshop and the volume emanating from it, Applied Sociology edited by Howard E. Freeman, Russell R. Dynes, Peter H. Rossi and William F. Whyte (Jossey-Bass, 1983), provided the inspiration for much of the growth and development in this area during the 1980s.

Bettina Huber directed the programmatic activities relating to sociological practice at the Executive Office from 1981 to 1986. She led efforts to prepare materials on job opportunities; organize professional development workshops; conduct surveys and analyze data trends of members who were employed in business, government and non-profit associations; and design seminars for federal government personnel officers on the potential for sociological skills. Huber was also responsible for the Certification Program at the Executive Office.

Congressional Fellowships were also established to give sociologists the opportunity to put "theory into practice, and bring her/his scholarly knowledge to bear on a major issue confronting a congressional committee." (Footnotes, March 1983:4) Carol Weiss (Harvard University) and William R. Freudenburg (Washington State University) were appointed ASA Congressional Fellows in 1983, and Raymond Russell received a fellowship in 1984 at the U.S. General Accounting Office. In 1985, Council approved the establishment of the ASA Distinguished Career Award for the Practice of Sociology with Conrad Taeuber as its first recipient in 1986.

Sociological Practice: 1986-91
In 1986, on the recommendation of the Committee on Sociological Practice, Council authorized the appointment of an Assistant Executive Officer to head a program to advance and better serve the needs of sociologists working in practice settings. Council viewed this as an act "to institutionalize the practice of sociology." Stephen Buff was appointed the first Director of the Professional Development Program (PDP) in July 1986. The Committee, chaired by Ruth Love, Bonneville Power Administration, had been at work for more than a year on an action plan for this new program that would focus on:

• Developing and disseminating career materials;
• Working with sociology departments to modify curricula so that graduates would be prepared for a wider range of job opportunities;
• Working with media to demonstrate the value of sociology and sociological skills;
• Making connections for sociologists with potential employers at all levels of government, business, industry and non-profit settings; and
• Serving as a general catalyst to help un- and underemployed sociologists find new venues for employing their skills. The work of PDP was coordinated by the ASA Committee on Federal Standards for the Employment of Sociologists. The major forms of outreach of the PDP were seminars and other presentations (mostly at federal agencies), publications, and resource materials. See Appendix 21 for a detailed list of PDP projects, but from 1986 to 1990, major program activities included:
• Sponsoring 14 seminars at 18 federal agencies aimed at informing federal officials about the research and work skills of sociologists; for example, William Darrow (Centers for Disease Control) and Rosemary C. R. Taylor (Tufts and Harvard Universities) spoke on the AIDS epidemic for the U.S. Public Health Service; and John Kasarda (North Carolina-Chapel Hill) spoke before Branch Chiefs at the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) on "Dual Cities: People and Jobs on a Collision Course;"
• Publishing The Internship Handbook (with TRC), and "How to Join the Federal Workforce and Advance Your Career" along with other career materials and resources;
• Preparing a document for new standards for the classification of jobs in the federal government, which were adopted in 1989 and updated the 1960s federal standards for the employment of sociologists;
• Cooperating with CAFLIS, the Coalition of Associations for Foreign Language and International Studies, whose programs aimed at foreign language study and international education were of interest to many in sociology; and
• Working with the New York-based Sociologists in Business to produce a video on corporate sociologists in the advertising, banking, insurance, communications, and consumer research industries.
  

Certification Program
The Association had grappled with issues relating to certification for nearly 30 years before Council officially launched the Certification Program in 1985. Several years earlier, in 1979, ASA responded to a revived interest in the issue by creating a Committee on Certification to explore establishing a program of certification. A report to Council in 1981 indicated that, "some sociologists feel that they are being blocked from entering some fields due to the lack of certification in sociology. Most frequently cited was the field of mental health where other disciplines [notably psychology] have established licensing laws which restrict the practice of others." (Council Minutes, January 1981) Council, however, raised questions about the extent to which sociologists were being excluded from jobs because of lack of certification; and noted its reluctance to deal with certification issues in its meetings during 1981 and 82.

A report outlining the need for certification of PhD and MA sociologists was presented to Council on September 3, 1983. In January 1984, after nearly three years of work, Council approved a Certification Program and created a Committee on Certification consisting of Edgar F. Borgatta (Chair), Otto Larsen, Katherine Marconi, Barbara Williams, and Mayer Zald. It was charged with drafting a set of procedures for certifying sociologists at the MA and PhD levels. The procedures were subsequently presented to state and regional representatives during the 1984 Annual Meeting in San Antonio. Council also directed that the consequences of certification on the social and behavioral sciences be further studied, and that a clearinghouse be established for collecting information on certification for use by state monitors.

In the interim report of August 1984, the Committee concluded that the primary purpose of ASA's certification program should be to "provide an additional qualification that will assist our graduates in dealing with the pressures of a highly competitive job market without adversely affecting academics or other sociologists who are not certified." (Kennedy, Footnotes, November 1994:4) The Committee also recommended that six certification committees be appointed for various broad specialty areas (demography, law and social control, medical sociology, organizational analysis, social policy and evaluation, and social psychology).

Ultimately, there was very little demand for certification. The August 1990 report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Evaluating the PhD Certification Program recommended that, because of low interest (only 62 persons had been certified in the first four years of that program), the "Oversight Committee be designated as the sole body to maintain and administer the program. This simplified structure would serve as a more cost-effective strategy in place of the existing seven committees." (Council Minutes, August 14, 1990)

Public Information Program
A Public Information Program was established in 1985 to promote public understanding of sociology and the work of sociologists. In 1932, the American Sociological Society had formed a committee to consider means for disseminating important sociological research findings. Although it had only a two-year life span, ASA implemented some of this committee's recommendation more than 50 years later (Howery, Footnotes, January 1985:1-2).

The Committee on Public Information, composed of Claude S. Fischer, William C. Martin, J. Ronald Milavsky, Rosalie Schram, Bernard Roshco, Lawrence J. Rhoades, and Michael Useem, presented a report to Council in January 1986 focused on the need to develop a public information program aimed at promoting an understanding of the discipline based on "scientific merit and practical value" and on improving the image of the profession of sociology among policymakers, funding officers, the media, and others who shape public opinion.

The Public Information Program aimed to achieve its goals by coordinating with COSSA and other social science associations in sponsoring joint press conferences and other similar events, cultivating the Washington press corps (especially the wire services), monitoring ASA publications for topics of general interest, expanding and improving media coverage of the Annual Meeting, recognizing the professional contributions of sociologists whose work appears in the media, training sociologists to deal more effectively with the press, and emphasizing media coverage beyond the newspaper story.

Minority Fellowship Programs
The ASA has supported minority students through various programs, activities, and events continuously since the mid-1970s. The main programmatic activities in support of minority students during the 1980s were the: (1) Minority Fellowship Program (MFP), which was launched in 1974 with funds primarily from NIMH to support training of minority sociologists in mental health, (2) Cornerhouse Dissertation Grants (funded from 1974-86), (3) training fellowships in clinical work funded by an NIMH grant (1979-84), and (4) the Minority Opportunity Summer Training (MOST) Program of summer institutes for minority undergraduates funded by the Ford Foundation beginning in 1990.

The largest of these programs was the MFP, with about $550,000 authorized each year from July 1984 through July 1989. By its 10th anniversary in 1984, MFP had funded 219 minority students, of whom 72 had obtained their PhDs (Appendix 23). The MFP program was under the direction of Paul Williams (1981-85) and Lionel Maldonado (1985-90).

Precarious Position of the MFP
The MFP was in a precarious position throughout much of the 1980s because of the drastic cuts in social research programs by the NIMH. The tenuous situation of the MFP led Council to consider new strategies for broadening the base of financial support for the program. MFP Council Liaison Michael Aiken presented the following goals for MFP to Council on August 30, 1984: "(1) a concerted effort to broaden the financial base of the MFP program beyond NIMH; (2) expansion of the program so that by the end of the decade there will be 20-25 new entrants annually and a total of 100-120 students receiving support; [and] (3) establishment of a task force to assist the MFP Committee in achieving the two objectives just outlined."

Council approved the general goals as stated, and in 1985 appointed a Task Force consisting of Charles Willie (Chair), Margaret Andersen, James E. Blackwell, Bonnie Thornton Dill, Richard O. Hope, Cheryl Leggon, Clarence Y. H. Lo, Lloyd H. Rogler, William Sewell, and Howard Taylor. Lionel Maldonado who had been appointed Director of MFP that year was also on the Task Force, and Charles Bonjean succeeded Valerie Oppenheimer as Council Liaison in 1986. The Task Force met several times, developed strategies for new funding sources, and contacted foundations for funding the MFP, however, with little success.

In 1986, ASA received a $27,000 planning grant from the Ford Foundation to review MFP and chart new directions for the program. The Ford Foundation also recommended that the Task Force focus its attention in several areas that have "historically plagued" many minority fellowship programs, including recruitment of undergraduate minority students into predoctoral studies, retention of students in graduate programs, and support in launching careers in the form of a postdoctoral component. Ford suggested that a fellowship program that incorporated all of these elements might appeal to foundations, and even serve as a model for other programs (Footnotes, March 1987:10). With Council's approval, the MFP Task Force refocused its attention on revamping the MFP program.

MOST I
In January 1988, Council restructured the MFP to allow for expanding to undergraduates and postdoctoral initiatives, and authorized ASA's direct financial support for the director and administrative assistant, so they could devote full time to the expanded program. In 1990, under the leadership of MFP Director Lionel Maldonado, ASA launched the new initiative, named the Minority Opportunity Summer Training (MOST) Program, consisting of summer institutes for minority undergraduates. The purpose of the new program (which in 1993 became known as "MOST I") was "to promote quality training in sociology as a means to attract undergraduates of color to graduate education. ASA built the institutes around three key approaches: relevant and rigorous curriculum, research-based training, and faculty mentoring of undergraduates." (Levine, Rodriguez, Howery, Latoni-Rodriguez 2002:7)

MOST I was funded by a two-year award of $185,000 from the Ford Foundation, which covered most of the costs for the first two institutes at the University of Delaware and the University of Wisconsin at Madison in 1990 and 1991. The Maurice Falk Medical Fund also gave $20,000 to help pay the travel costs for the faculty of the Institutes, and the American Sociological Foundation made its first grant in the amount of $10,000 to help cover other institute-related activities. The program was limited to 15 students per session at each university. MOST I continued with summer institutes in the summers of 1992 and 1993 at the University of Michigan and the University of California-Berkeley, and later evolved into the second MOST Program-a key ASA initiative during the 1990s, funded by the Ford Foundation.

Other Funding Sources
In addition to the NIMH funding, the MFP also received $10,000-15,000 each year from the Cornerhouse Fund in support of dissertation research for minority students. A Footnotes article in October 1985 noted that, "[s]ince 1975, the Cornerhouse Fund has contributed $172,000 to the Minority Fellowship Program. Grants from the Fund have supported 61 students, 45 of whom have received their doctorates." (October 1985:5) The article also reported that seven new Sydney Spivack dissertation awards from the Fund were made in 1985 and 1986. The Cornerhouse Fund discontinued its funding to MFP in 1986. As noted above (see Cornerhouse Fund), in 1991, all remaining monies in the Fund were awarded to the ASA to support sociological initiatives related to public policy in the Spivack Program (see Spivack Program in Chapter 2).

As ASA moved to improve the MFP, it worked vigorously to obtain new sources of support to compensate for the loss of NIMH funding. Assistance came in various forms. Graduate departments in which ASA fellows were enrolled gave tuition and fee waivers and/or remissions, as well as some matching stipends. A contribution of $10,000 by members ensured continued dissertation support for 1986 and 1987. Sociologists for Women in Society (SWS) established a dissertation fellowship, which provided funds (1986-87); and Alpha Kappa Delta (AKD), the Association of Black Sociologists (ABS), the Eastern Sociological Association, Southwestern Sociological Association, the Mid-West Sociological Society, and the Mid-South Sociological Association made contributions to MFP. NIMH also awarded ASA a supplement of nearly $25,000 that enabled MFP to make six dissertation grants for the 1987-88 academic year.

Maldonado noted in 1987 that the special drive helped to keep the program stable at 22 fellows a year, about half the size of ASA's stated goal of support for 40 students per year. To keep MFP stable beyond 1987, ASA increased its financial support of administrative costs to 40 percent for 1987 and 50 percent for 1988 and thereafter. Maldonado reported site visits to 11 campuses in 1988 to explain program guidelines, recruit applicants, develop closer ties between departments and the ASA, and press for permanent funding arrangements for ASA fellows.

MFP was reviewed formally in 1989 by an NIMH-appointed panel, and earned a near-perfect priority score of 115. MFP was again renewed for three years by NIMH at the level of $350,000 annually, and was supplemented by tuition and stipend support from many of the universities cooperating in the program (D'Antonio, Footnotes, August 1990:2). This grant also provided some support for the Program Director and the Administrative Assistant, as well as for special dissertation awards. Maldonado reported restoration of the full amount of the 1992 NIMH grant to graduate fellowships following cuts in 1991.

Proceed to the next section of this chapter